This Section is Written By: Mukund Mogal 

 Israel’s Trendsetting Water Conservation Technology

The causes are both natural and man-made. Israel has suffered from four consecutive years of drought. The increase in demand for water for domestic uses, caused by population growth and the rising standard of living, together with the need to supply water pursuant to international undertakings have led to over-utilization of its renewable water sources.

But still Israel have managed their limited water resource so efficiently and set example for the rest of the world. The slogan "Don't waste a drop" is known in every home in Israel. Parks have been placed under a conservation regime, including planting of drought-resistant plants and watering at night.

They have firstly followed most reliable and least expensive way named ‘Water Conservation’ they have spread awareness through campaigns covering technical and economic measures to reduce this water scarcity.

In agriculture, the wide scale adoption of low volume irrigation systems (e.g. drip, micro-sprinklers) and automation has increased the average efficiency to 90% as compared to 64% for furrow irrigation. As a result, the average requirement of water per unit of land area has decreased from 8,700 cum/ha in 1975 to the current application rate of 5,500 cum/ha. At the same time agricultural output has increased twelve fold, while total water consumption by the sector has remained almost constant.

In the domestic and urban sectors, conservation efforts focus on improvements in efficiency, resource management, repair, control and monitoring of municipal water systems. Citizens are urged to save water.

The slogan "Don't waste a drop" is known in every home in Israel.

But if you compare Israel’s rainfall and any other countries average rainfall, then you can notice that Israel have least rainfall still they manage to produce and export their crops as well their water efficient technology to rest of the world.

They save water, Maintain the quality of it and Distribute it well through out the country.
Waves of Ocean as a Source of Energy

75%of earths consist water & we know that the waves have the tremendous energy which affects the neighboring beaches land cities. As we near the twenty-first century, a time when public attention was focused on the environment and society is increasing at an ever-accelerating rate, water is travel by wind that forms the waves in ocean. Waves are moves in upward & downward directions which possess potential energy & kinetic energy.

Generation of Ocean's Energy:

Printesh Thakur

- Basic Principle
Wave energy conversion in electrical energy that is of  low frequency. Energy of these waves is stored & converted into high frequency for various uses.

- Method of Generating The Energy:-
Some systems extract energy from surface waves. Others extract energy from pressure fluctuations below the water surface or from the full wave. Some systems are fixed in position and let waves pass by them, while others follow the waves and move with them. Some systems concentrate and focus waves, which increases their height and their potential for conversion to electrical energy.
The incidence of wave power at deep ocean sites is three to eight times the wave power at adjacent coastal sites. However the cost of electricity transmission from deep ocean sites is very high.

Ocean power has the potential to generate significant amounts of electricity at certain sites around the world. Although the entire electricity needs could never be met by Ocean power alone, it can be a valuable source of renewable energy to an electrical system.

- Present projects based on same 'Ocean Energy':
As of 1995, La Rance generating station in France.

Elsewhere there is a 20 MW experimental facility at Annapolis Royal in Nova Scotia, and a 0.4 MW tidal power plant near Murmansk 

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Muncipal Solid Waste Management  

Human being and animals generates large amount of solid waste that is totally of no use. Its collection creates unhealthey envirnmet to live and  also occupies large spaces. This waste is not bioogcally degradable. It includes the heterogeneous mass of throw away from the urban community as well as the homogenous accumulations of agricultural, industrial, and mineral wastes. Solid wastes are being produced since the beginning of civilization. During the early period, solid wastes were conveniently disposed off, as the density of population was low and as large open lands were available. With the advent of industrialization and urbanization, the problem of solid waste disposal increased. The classification of solid waste and different ways or methods of disposal are discussed or given below

Types of Solid Wastes

Solid wastes generated in the urban areas are classified as:

1. Food wastes                                          4.Demolition and construction wastes
2. Rubbish                                                5.Agricultural wastes from markets.
3. Ashes and Residues.                              6.Hazardous Wastes

Collection of waste is done by the means of common dustbins, then it is collected with the help of trucks, lorries and transaported to the disposal sites.

DISPOSAL METHODS:
Generally adopted disposal methods for the solid waste disposal are:

1. Landfills

2. Incertation

      3. Composting

LAND FILL METHOD: Landfill method of disposal is cheap from methods, but the drawback of it isrequire more space for disposal. It affests the ground surface and water table, so it is not recommended to use this method for land filling.

INCENERATION METHOD: This method involves disposal of the waste by burning. This method involves high capital investment and trained technical supervision. Hence, this method of disposal is not feasible for small and medium cities.

COMPOSTING METHOD: Composting method of disposal also involves trained persons and technical supervision for waste disposal by this method. The composte generated by this method has to be marketed for its economic viability. As marketing of composting is difficult task, hence this method is also not a feasible method of disposal.

So, If think oveall, Solid  Waste Managemnet involves work of  multidisciplinary specialist.If we use it efficeiently with proper guidance it can be very economical as well as productive.

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Biogas Projects: Implementations and Hindrances

Variety of organic residues, from humans, animals, crops and domestic food waste are the basic and essential ingredients of biogas plants. Biogas is an integrated mixture of all these ingredients which after proper decomposition produces biogas. Indeed, biogas plants could also be usefully employed in an urban environment also. Researches and their results states that  such a system to be a viable option for solid waste disposal in areas of rapid urbanization. This topic by Green Planet Campaign basically concerned with biogas in rural areas but it also focusing on the potential of biogas technology and its multifunctional and flexible applications.

Apart from the direct benefits gleaned from biogas systems, there are others too, perhaps less tangible benefits associated with this renewable technology. By providing an alternative source of fuel, biogas can replace the traditional biomass based fuels, notably wood. Introduced on a significant scale, biogas may reduce the dependence on wood from forests, and create a vacuum in the market, at least for firewood (whether this might reduce pressure on forests however, is contestable).

The gas is useful as a fuel substitute for firewood, dung, agricultural residues, petrol, diesel, and electricity, depending on the nature of the task, and local supply conditions and constraints , thus supplying energy for cooking and lighting. Biogas systems also provide a residue organic waste, after anaerobic digestion, that has superior nutrient qualities over the usual organic fertilizer, cattle dung, as it is in the form of ammonia. Anaerobic digesters also function as a waste disposal system, particularly for human waste, and can, therefore, prevent potential sources of environmental contamination and the spread of pathogens. Small-scale industries are also made possible, from the sale of surplus gas to the provision of power for a rural-based industry, therefore, biogas may also provide the user with income generating opportunities . The gas can also be used to power engines, in a dual fuel mix with petrol and diesel , and can aid in pumped irrigation systems.

The enormous potential of biogas, estimated at 17,000 MW can be seen from table 1. The capacity was derived principally from estimated agricultural residues and dung from India's 300 million cattle. Biogas technology may have the potential to short-circuit the 'energy transition' Leach  describes from biomass to 'modern' fuels. Biogas technology is a particularly useful system in the Indian rural economy, and can fulfill several end uses. The gas is useful as a fuel substitute for firewood, dung, agricultural residues, petrol, diesel, and electricity, depending on the nature of the task, and local supply conditions and constraints, thus supplying energy for cooking and lighting. Biogas systems also provide a residue organic waste, after anaerobic digestion, that has superior nutrient qualities over the usual organic fertilizer, cattle dung, as it is in the form of ammonia. Anaerobic digesters also function as a waste disposal system, particularly for human waste, and can, therefore, prevent potential sources of environmental contamination and the spread of pathogens. Small-scale industries are also made possible, from the sale of surplus gas to the provision of power for a rural-based industry, therefore, biogas may also provide the user with income generating opportunities. The gas can also be used to power engines, in a dual fuel mix with petrol and diesel, and can aid in pumped irrigation systems.

Factors hindering spread of biogas

It would be worth briefly considering the problems associated with the alternative technology, in terms of technical/operational, economic, and cultural aspects, which may potentially hinder its spread. Finally, the government's overall approach in disseminating biogas technology will be considered.

Technica discovered that there was a general tendency for householders to construct an over-sized plant, even when they were only used for cooking purposes and not applied to wider energy demands. Too large a plant was found to lead to under feeding, and eventual failure of the plants to produce gas. Under feeding was also found to occur due to the under-collection of dung, estimated typically at 30-40% of the required capacity, and principally due to cattle being worked in the field, which would also lead to a reduction in gas production. Dung may also vary in its availability. As mentioned earlier, in areas of climatic instability, the occurrence of drought may reduce dung availability, by forced sale of cattle, or even death of cattle. In some areas, the plant may not be technically feasible all year round due to low winter temperatures that inhibit methanogenesis 

Sometimes the plants are faulty in their construction, or develop problems that lead to the non-functioning of the plant, due to shoddy construction, analysed factors in the non-functioning of plants in Maharashtra, western India. The workers discovered that often, specially trained masons in biogas plant construction were overlooked, due to their higher cost, in favour of cheaper trainees, or those with no training at all, and often encouraged local by the government agencies, to meet ambitious targets. Chand and Murthy identified 50% of 1670 plants in the study as incapable of ever being made functional.

Economically, biogas systems have been shown to be cost-effective. It is modelled different energy use scenarios of village size plants in Pura. The analysis was site specific, and localised in its approach. Lichtman found that in 78% of the situations modelled, the village showed a net gain. This percentage is likely to decrease in the consideration of smaller, household size systems . Lichtman concedes, however, that it is more profitable to maintain a community-size system as a public utility and fertilizer plant, than as a source of cooking gas, subject to the viable provision of an alternative energy source for cooking, such as woodlots, and for fodder. Biogas production could perhaps be linked to small-scale industries.

Despite the positive cost-benefit of biogas technology, the 'macro-environment', may discriminate against the uptake of biogas. The macro-environment which determines price structures of conventional fuels most likely acts as a disincentive to adopt renewable technologies, generally. Subsidized conventional fuels, such as electricity, along with free connection to the grid for farmers, will continue to make non-renewable technology the cheapest option, unless subsidies for biogas can be brought into line, or prices of conventional fuels raised.

The system of grants and loans may hinder the correct choice of plant for different users, such as the ineligibility of community size systems, due to their size. While finally, another point in prohibiting uptake may be the perceived unnecessary switch from the existing free source of energy, such as wood and crop residues.

Compared to the biogas programme in China, where seven million household and community biogas systems have been successfully installed, India has a long way to go to realize the benefits of biogas technology. China, through the creation of effective institutions and by placing an emphasis on training and education, has achieved widespread dissemination of biogas technology, though the social organization may particularly facilitate the spread of new, community-focused technologies.

Workers stress the need for micro-planning, so that genuinely appropriate biogas technology is made available to rural communities.  emphasises the importance in promoting the participation of local people in the whole process of education, planning and monitoring, so that the renewable technology is viable and sustainable in the communities it is designed to serve. Other workers also propose Co-ordinated management information systems as part of biogas development, in order for problems to be identified and remedial measures undertaken.

Final Words

Biogas has shown an economic component in Indian economy but its application have many difficulties associated with it.  Because of the factors like high rates of non-functioning plants and other economic problems its status as a fuel remains marginal.

Participation in Biogas activity depends on the money you can invest, but actually its application is basically designed for India’s 70% Agriculture sector.  Biogas serves one of the best fuel requirements from the solid wastes like dung, leaves, and other organic wastes.

After the invention of Biogas it was very in controversies because of various positive and negative reactions on it but today if we think economically, socially and consider the feasibility then Biogas is best fuel we can get in minimum investment.

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Rain Water Harvesting

India being the second largest wetted country in the world, India is facing severe drinking problems. Due to over explorations of ground water this problem is becoming more severe now-a-days.

Rain is the first form of water in hydrological cycle; hence it is primary source of water. As we stand on the shoulder of a new country, which would mean further growth and urbanization on one hand environmental crisis on the other, it is necessary to adopt traditional water harvesting system to suite our present day urban and agricultural needs.

What Is Rain Water Harvesting

Water harvesting means to understand the value of rain and to make optimum use of rain water at the place where it falls. Technically, the deliberated collection of rain water within a catchments area for the domestic and irrigation purpose is called as rain water harvesting.

The collection and storage generally begins and ends with rainy season. Rain water harvesting is merely, putting back rain water into the soil where it will be stored in underground natural reservoirs and  in rivers. So that it can be drawn out when needed .

Classification

Rain water harvesting can be broadly classified according to place where it is done.

1) Ground Catchments:-

      a) Soil Moisture Conservation

         - Continuous Contour Trenches [CCT]

         -Terracing

         -Contour Bunding

         - Gully Plugs

     b) Water Conservation:-

         - Farm Ponds

         - Earthen Nulla Bunds

         - Sub Surface Checks

         - Percolation Tanks

 2) Roof Catchments (Rooftop RWH):-

      a) Storage in Tanks for Direct Use

      b) Recharge to Ground Water Aquifers

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 Hard Water Treatment

"Water, water, everywhere." Well, how much water is there; where is this water; how does it move around?

What is water and importance of water we are know but various place and many people are not gives importance of water.

This is a serious problem in India but almost in world.  So that water is a life, in earth about 70%water and 25%  earth .but 70% f water are not be used because salt water so for drinking  purpose there are shortage water. In many places there shortage of water and also they are not to drinking treatment water. So I seen various places they are drink hard water. In India this problem was serious so we carefully for use water because we know that there many disease in water so it required treatment. Do you know where your drinking water comes from? Or how it is treated before it gets to your tap?

Although water covers about 70 percent of the Earth, less than 1 percent is available as freshwater for human use. The vast majority of the water on this "blue planet" is found in the ocean, too salty to drink and unfit for many other applications. Of the freshwater available on Earth, about two-thirds is frozen in ice caps and glaciers, which leaves only a small fraction accessible for human use.


For any living being water, air, food, cloth, etc. are the primary needs, for which water has very importance. Everywhere water is required for various purpose like

1)      Drinking and cooking.

2)      Bathing and washing, etc.

Without food human can survive for a number of days, but water is such essential element that without it he cannot.

 Water is good carrier of disease germ, and may be responsible for water borne disease. Therefore water which is required by the human should free from disease like pathogens, poisonous substance and excessive amount of mineral and organic matter.

The water-borne disease are typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, bacillary dysentery, and cholera,etc. therefore its work very important that water works must remove all impurities and bacteria’s from water and make fit for drinking and wholesome.

Most important thing under water supply scheme is the selection of source of water, which should be reliable and have minimum under impurities and economical.

For water treatment well planning, designing, construction, maintenance and operation of water work. Design the water work scheme in the economical and efficiency it remove the impurities and bacteria’s.

  Resources of water

      When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows along the land surface to streams or lakes, some is used by plants, some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and some seeps into the ground. Water seeps into the ground much like a glass of water poured onto a pile of sand.

As water seeps into the ground, some of it clings to particles of soil or to roots of plants just below the land surface. This moisture provides plants with the water they need to grow. Water not used by plants moves deeper into the ground. The water moves downward through empty spaces or cracks in the soil, sand, or rocks until it reaches a layer of rock through which water cannot easily move. The water then fills the empty spaces and cracks above that layer. The top of the water in the soil, sand, or rocks is called the water table and the water that fills the empty spaces and cracks is called ground water.

Water seeping down from the land surface adds to the ground water and is called recharge water. Ground water is recharged from rain water and snowmelt or from water that leaks through the bottom of some lakes and rivers. Ground water also can be recharged when water-supply systems (pipelines and canals) leak and when crops are irrigated with more water than the plants can use.

At least some ground water can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep, such as under a hillside, or shallow such as under a valley. The water table may rise or fall depending on several factors. Heavy rains or melting snow may increase recharge and cause the water table to rise. An extended period of dry weather may decrease recharge and cause the water table to fall.

Surface source of water include river, streams, lakes, pond, reseviour, etc. this are the large source of water of surface source which vary from season to season.

Surface source of water include river, streams, lakes, pond, reseviour, etc. this are the large source of water of surface source which vary from season to season.

These are the source of water in which the all source of  water required treatment because in which present some harmful diseases and organic matter. So it required treatment and make drinking without harmful, fit for drinking. So that we are have a minimum treatment plant in our country. To solve this problem so design and construction treatment plant is required

            So that above mentioned process are useful to treatment the water.

             Screens are fixed in the intake work therefore it is not necessary to have separate screening plant.              In the plain sedimentation process suspended particles may be settle down due to the gravitational                force. These are the processes are carried to remove the harmful impurities and fit for drinking                    purpose

             Layout of Treatment Plant:

The water treatment plant requires following process from the source of water upto the distribution system       

1.      Intake work including pumping plant.

2.      Plain sedimentation.

3.      Sedimentation with coagulation.

4.      Filtration.

5.      Water softening plant.

6.      Miscellaneous treatment plant.

7.      Disinfection.

8.      Clear water reservoir.

9.      Distribution system to consumer.

.          More than 50 percent of the people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas, use ground water for drinking and other household uses. Ground water is also used in some way by about 75 percent of cities and by many factories. The largest use of ground water is to irrigate crops.

Improving Water Table

Water is a life of the living organisms.  These days due to highly pollution the balance of environment is disturb this is because rainfall through  out  the country is uneven,  scattered and unpredictable .Due the more rainfall  the heavy floods coming & destroy the living things .on the some places the rainfall are not regular that’s effect is the scarcity of water heavily.

Now a days due the highly consumption  of water  in the industries, domestic purpose, firming etc.Due the heavy and uncontrolled  use of water ,the level  of ground water table is lowered below the danger zone. It is necessary to look towards the important question.

To improve the ground water table the following methods are,

Plough the firm perpendicular to the slope of firm. 

 In the villages the firming is main occupation .before starting the Manson the farmers are plough there firm in useless or unplanned. That’s effect is the rainwater is flowing from the firms and also erosion of soil is take place & do not percolate in the ground effectively. To overcome this problem the firms are plough in the perpendicular to slope of the ground .when the rain water is flowing through firm the perpendicular ploughing is resist the water flow in some amount at that time the water is percolate in the ground.

2. To build the small earthen bunds on the slope of the hill or on the sloping ground,

In the arid region the scarcity of water is in heavy amount. The rain water is flowing fastly on the sloping ground that’s why the no percolation of water takes place. So that to build the small earthen bunds or water resisting structure through out the slope of hill or sloping portion.  The water is accumulating in   the catchment area and percolates in earth. This percolated water is getting back after the 4-5 months in the wells, bore wells etc.   

This method is used as the government policy i.e. “water shed programme’’ by   ministry of water resources, Maharashtra.

The best example of water shed program is the village’ Ralegansiddhi’ placed in Ahamednager district, Maharashtra.                            

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Biofuel

Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gas fuel produce from recently dead biological material and is different from fossil fuels, which are extracted from long dead biological material . Theoretically, biofuels can be produced from any (biological) carbon source; although, the most common sources are photosynthetic plants. Various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing. Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power vehicles and cooking stoves. Biofuel industries are expanding in Europe, Asia and the America.

Biofuels are produce energy with out increase carbon content in the environment. That’s why the plants are used in the extraction of the biofuels and also removed the carbon di-oxide from the atmosphere. The fossil fuels producing more carbon content and it get back send to the atmosphere that stored below the surface of earth millions of years back in the atmosphere. It is increases the carbon content and greenhouse gases. The use biofuel also decreases the dependence on petroleum and also to increases the energy security.

There are two common strategies of producing biofuels.

- The crops grow crops high in sugar i.e. sugar cane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum or starch and then use yeast fermentation to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol).

- The second is to grow plants that contain high amounts of amounts of vegetable oil, ex. oil palm, soybean, algae, or jatropha. When these oils are heated, their viscosity is reduced, and they can be burned directly in a diesel engine, or they can be chemically processed to produce fuels such as biodiesel.

-  Wood and its byproducts can be converted into biofuels such as wood gas, methanol or ethanol fuel. It is also possible to make cellulosic ethanol from non-edible plant parts, but this can be difficult to accomplish economically. Including: mitigation of carbon emissions levels and oil prices, the”

The Need of Biofuels

Now a days the world growing fastly day by day in all sectors i.e. public, industrial, etc.

These sectors are grow because of the new invention are invented. That’s why the high use of the petroleum products .due the pollution .problem which badly affects the nature.

The storage of these petroleum substances’ are very short .in the upcoming periods that’s why the use of non- conventional energies viz, biofuel, biogas, solar energy, wind energy etc.  

The Biodisel Plant

Jatropha is a member of the Euphorbiaceous family, it is draught resistant recurrent living 45-50 years.  It grows on the all types of soils and also it grows in the low rain fall areas having rainfall ranging from 250 mm.

Jatropa is cultivated on which lands that are non-culivable. Jatropha seeds contain about 35 % of non-edible oil. From this non-edible oil, bio-diesel is obtained by transterification process. The bio-diesel produced form this seeds is having 10% oxygen, & it is totally combustible. As it is totally combustible having low percentage of sulphur, carbon monoxide, etc. so it is a Eco Friendly.

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